16Jun
PETS AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT BORIS M.LEVINSON
Fmkauf Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Yeshiva University
Summary.-Man has had animal companions since prehistoric rimes, as reflected in folklore, legends, and literature. In an urban, technological society such as ours, closeness to animals can reduce alienation. Development
over the life cycle can be favorably influenced by close association with an animal
companion, particularly during middle childhood and old age.
The development of empathy, self-esteem, self-control, and autonomy can be promoted i n
children through raising pets, while the loneliness of old age can be eased and
deterioration warded off by nurturing an animal. Psychologists have not studied
animal-human relationships to date, and such research is long overdue.
The relationship between human beings and their animal companions has
been incorporated into various views of the universe and man's place in it
which have, directly or indirectly, influenced the personality development of
millions of people over the centuries.
Man has had animal companions since prehistoric times. Poets, writers,
and' novelists have written about the relationship between man and his animal
friends. Many centuries ago, acute observers had already noticed that the way
the man felt about himself and his place in the universe also reflected in the
way he treated his animals. The way the man treats his animals also parallels
the manner in which he relates to other people. For animals have always re-
minded us of our own animal origins; as such they bring us back to nature
and decrease our alienation from it. For many individuals, association with animal companions has a therapeutic value and contributes to self-understand- ing (Levinson, 1969,1972).
The association with animals has influenced not only individual person- alicy development but also the personality and culture of many preliterate peoples. According to Evans-Pritchard ( 1940), for example, the personality
of the Newer people is determined by their association with their cattle. They conduct themselves as if they were cattle, give themselves ox names and define all social processes and relationships in terms of acted.
Ethical values, the struggle between good and evil forces, has often been depicted in terms of animals, as in the modern literary myth Moby Dick (Mel-ville, 1952).
Experimental psychology, making the "audacious assumption of species equivalence" (Murray, 1951, p. 4 3 5 ) , has used animals in lieu of humans to investigate aspects of human behavior. It has not, however, seen fit to bring animals a s animals onto the experimental scene to study human-animal interaction and what this tells us about human development.
Personality theorists, while acknowledging the significance of the human and the inanimate environment on the personality development of the individual, have curiously enough given no consideration to animal companions as a
feature of the environment, one which is neither human nor inanimate but
which makes a unique contribution to the social and physical atmosphere within
which the individual develops. When animals are considered by personality
theorists they are seen as symbolic representations of impulse life reflated in
dreams and art rather than the actual, palpable companions which share many people's daily routine.
In our rapidly changing technological society, with the small nuclear family the "school" in which human relations, love, and empathy are taught, animal
companions may have a more important role than they did when the extended family provided more companionship and learning experiences, and life, particularily in rural areas, provided more opportunities for daily contact with animals which were crucial t o the economic existence of the family.The popularity of a film such as "For the Love of Benji" or of Sandy the orphan dog in
the very successful Broadway musical An~zie, reflects the hunger which urban
populations feel for meaningful contact with animal companions.
Because psychological research has neglected the study of animal-human
relationships, I can not cite sources dealing with the role of animal companions
in human personality development. I am treading o n virgin soil.
This discussion is based partly on anthropological and sociological data, partly on surmises and extrapolations from what we do know about human development,
partly on clinical observations made by myself and others of the effects of
animal companionship on individuals at various stages of their life.
In brief, my thesis is that the personality development of an individual
who has an animal companion or is surrounded by animals, if these animals
play a significant role in his life, will be somewhat different from that of an
individual who does not possess animals. The ownership of a pet may aid in PETS AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 1033
the development of adaptive personality traits. I t may contribute to the esestablishment of a life style which involves nurturance and companionship with
a living creature that can sustain a conviction of life's worthwhile even under difficult circumstances.
Since time limitations d o not permit a detailed consideration of the role of an animal companion throughout the entire span of personality development, only a few highlights are mentioned; namely, how relating to an animal affects the development of the self-concept and self-esteem, how it promotes
a sense of competence and increases impulse control, how i t heightens the
capacity to love and empathize, what part it can play in the full development of
sexuality, how it can inhibit deterioration during the aging process.
For the purposes of this presentation we shall adopt Allport's definition
(1961, p. 28) of personality as "the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and
thought."
The self-concept is viewed as a cluster of attitudes and feelings the
individual has about himself. I t is the self-concept which gives direction to the
development of various stable personality traits.
I would like t o point out that the growth of personality is continuous.
It cannot be broken up into distinct periods. However, we may say that certain
personality problems or developmental tasks are salient at particular periods
in the life cycle. I n grappling with these tasks I see the individual as potentially turning to an animal companion as one resource among many. Obviously, the role of the pet will change not only as the needs of his owner change but according to the total number o f inner and outer resources available to the individual in his growth struggles.
Animal companions have their strongest impact during middle childhood and old age.
W h e n a pet is introduced into a family, the entire climate of family inter-
action changes and becomes more complex. N o t only does each member o f
the family interact with the animal in his own characteristic way, but family
members interact with each other over the pet. Feelings of rivalry, possessiveness, jealousy can emerge just as with the advent of a new child o r sibling. Well
handled by the parents, this situation can provide an opportunity for working
through similar feelings about siblings which have hitherto not been dealt with.
Similarly, the promotion of a nurturer, considerate attitude toward the pet can involve the entire family in a cooperative enterprise aimed at the good of the animal which at the same time promotes the closeness of the family members. Children who become the "parents" of a pet may develop a more realistic view of their own parents and parenting functions, not only nurturer
but disciplinary in nature.
T h e individual child who is old enough to take responsibility for the care
and training of a pet can benefit in a variety of ways, alluded to earlier.
A pet animal is an accepting creature. He holds up no ego ideal for the child to meet, as do the parents, but unstintingly gives acceptance and affection
without strings. He accepts the child for what he is, not for what he might or
ought to be. While the child should be receiving what Carl Rogers (1959)
calls unconditional positive regard from his parents, he may not be so fortunate.
Peers kd teachers, too, have certain expectations which must be fulfilled if acceptance and approval are to be forthcoming. Complete acceptance by a
pet can therefore provide a child with a sense of worth and livability which he might not be getting sufficiently from the rest of his environment.
If the child is able to train his pet to behave acceptably and even perform tricks, the child will have a feeling of competence which enhances his self- esteem.
This is particularly true when the parents acknowledge the child's accomplishments with his pet.
Success of this kind can enhance the child's self-
confidence so that he tackles with a positive attitude other tasks appropriate to his developmental stage. Self-confidence is likely to promote success in an undertaking, which in turn enhances self-confidence and leads to further successes.
Children who are having difficulty mastering age-appropriate skills, such as academic subjects, may take some comfort from their successful training of a pet and so suffer less from the blows to their self-esteem which result from experiences of failure in school.
Relationships with peers may also benefit from owning and handling a pet.
Having a pet, particularly one which can be taught tricks and who openly
demonstrates loyalty and affection, can enhance a child's prestige in the eyes of his peers and cause them to seek him out. It can also help a shy child break the ice with other children, particularly if he is a newcomer to the situation.
Finally, relating to an animal in an empathic, considerate way is good preparation for relating to other people in a similar way.
For children living in isolated areas in which there are few peers, animal companionship may have to
be a substitute for human friendships. While certainly not equivalent, association with a loved animal can greatly reduce a child's sense of isolation and give him something other than the adult world in which to develop.
One of the important developmental tasks of childhood is the acquisition of greater autonomy and independence.
Getting around on his own, exploring
new geographical areas, venturing out of the immediate neighborhood without accompaniment is part of this developing independence. A child who is fearful (realistically or otherwise) of taking such a step alone may be willing to do so when accompanied by his dog. Mother, tm , may be more willing to let him venture forth when he is thus "protected." Moreover, seeing himself as one who is depended upon rather than the one who depends can enhance a child's sense of responsibility and independence.
For those parents, especially mothers, who find their child's increasing independence. a threat to their need to be needed, having a substitute "baby," a pet of their own who can be ministered to, nurtured, and fondled, may make
it easier to "let go."
Part of acquiring autonomy is the taking over of control over one's behavior, the development of self-discipline and impulse control. The ability to
delay gratification, t o exercise patience, to carry out responsibilities, to recognize and defer to the needs of others o n occasion, are all part of being a self- directing human being. A child who is responsible for the well-being and training of a pet has t o exhibit all these capacities. H e is also trying to inculcate some of these abilities in his pet, who must wait to be fed o r walked, will
not always be played with on demand, must learn not to damage furnishings, etc. Of course, the more self-mastery the child has a c q ~ ~ i r e d the better h e can
train his pet, but the very act of trying to train his pet successfully will reinforce self-control in the child to some extent.
Love is the priceless ingredient with which our animal companions enrich our lives. Human life is marked by periodic developmental crises. The process of personality growth involves both the destruction of older, no longer
suitable patterns of behavior and the simultaneous building up of new behavior patterns. Such changes are often painful. Love is a necessary ingredient in
this process of growth. W h e n the child feels secure in the knowledge that he is loved, he is free t o take the risk of trying out new, more mature behavior
patterns. Unfortunately, adequate parental love is not always forthcoming.
Some parents are unaware o f the fact that they have t o demonstrate t o a child that h e o r she is loved and respected. Other parents feel that if they show
love they will spoil their child. Some patents, even when they become aware of their lack of responsiveness, cannot openly show their love or allow their children to be demonstrative towards them. An animal companion has no
such inhibitions. I t will show in unmistakable terms its love and affection for the child and welcome such expressions from its younger owner. Though not
fully a substitute for loving parents, a pet can provide some of the opportunities for overtly giving and receiving affection which a child needs for adequate
growth and personality development. At times a child may have more love for his over-responsive pet than for his parents or siblings. Happy hours with his pet may ease a child through times when he is feeling unloved or unlovable.
The arrival of a new sibling may be just such an occasion. When attention seems entirely focused o n the newcomer, the older child can feel secure
that his pet prefers h i ~ n . W h e n his rage a t his patents and siblings must be vented, a pet will lend a ready, and safe, ear. Aggressive energy can be re-
leased harmlessly in a rough romp with a willing animal. Sensitive parents who observe how the child makes use of his pet at these times and understand
why can ease his feelings of abandonment and offer reassurances that he has not lost his place in the family.
I t becomes easier for a child to identify with his parents' nurturance of 1036 B. M. LEVINSON a helpless, demanding infant when he, himself, is providing nurturance to an
animal. This is particularly important for boys who are provided in our society with few opportunities to develop and display their nurturer tendencies.
Caring for an animal allows them to do so without a sense of diminished manliness.
Communicating with a non-verbal creature-be it infant or animal-requires empathy, an ability to imagine how another thinks and feels, a capacity
for mentally stepping into the other's place and to some extent experiencing
what he is experiencing. Language using humans, too, communicate non- verbally much of the time. Empathy develops a s the child is able to move
away from his egocentric view of the world and can recognize 1.' ,IS common
humanity with others. Treated with adequate love and respect he will come
to love and respect himself and then extend these feelings to others as he recognizes that they are like him. Dealing with a loved animal who cannot tell his
owner i n words how he feels and what he needs requires the child to be receptive to cues from his pet, to be aware of his animal's movements, facial
expression, sounds. This is good training for responsiveness to non-verbal
communication from parents, siblings, friends, and teachers, and later from
lovers and mates.
Occasionally, the animal plays a role in the child's sexual development.
At birth the individual has the potential for developing various outlets for
sexual expression. T h e options open to him will depend upon his psycho sexual development, the cultural climate in which he lives, and the sex objects
available. I n my opinion, man may be considered a trisexual being, able to
contemplate and even enjoy sex relations with persons of the opposite sex, of
his own sex, and with animals. This has been exemplified throughout man's
existence on this planet (Levinson, 1974).
I know that sexual contact in the form of intercourse with animals is still
a taboo subject for discussion, and if actually engaged in carries the risk of
severe criminal penalties for the human partner. This attitude is similar t o
the one held until very recently by many members of our society, including
the medical profession, toward masturbation and homosexuality.
W e know that about the age of four o r five there is practically universal
masturbation among children, unless this activity is suppressed by adults. At
this developmental stage, some children begin to masturbate against their pets
while fantasizing that some day the animal will be transformed into a human
being of the opposite sex. For a child, masturbation with an animal is to be preferred to solitary masturbation. An animal is a living thing and, as such,
provides a transition between deriving pleasure from selfstimulation and deriving pleasure from mutual stimulation with another human being.
Sexual play with a pet is harmless, and in my clinical experience children with such experience have developed normal heterosexual interests. Thus, when PETS AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 1037
we discover that a child is masturbating against an animal, it is important not to reprove, shame, or punish him. Otherwise, the child may come to associate
sexual impulses and activity with shame, guilt, or fear. However, even when the child is not reproved by an authority figure, he realizes that his practices
are not approved by society at large, and he may become secretive and guilty about them.
If we were more relaxed in our attitude toward this practice, we would make it easier for the child t o feel comfortable about his sexuality and to develop full sexual responsiveness.
Personality growth continues throughout life, even unto old age. An old person may find himself in the situation where, having been a nurturer for many years, he has now lost the family and friends to whom he gave, and from
whom h e received, love and care. H e may have been forced to retire from his job, or, in the case of a woman not employed outside the home, may no longer
have a household to run. Such a person's concept of himself as a worthwhile individual may deteriorate. Compounded by loneliness, this loss of self-approval
may create havoc with the integrity of his personality.
Some people consider old age to be a period during which the best that
can be hoped for is to hold o n to previously won positions and stave off deterioration.
However, this is not necessarily the case, even for one who no longer has any dose human companionship. The love of an animal can be the glue that holds a shaky personality together. Loving and nurturing a pet can
provide a growth experience. A lonely person who has a pet is no longer so lonely. His loneliness may be transformed into a healing solitude.
New experiences contribute to personality growth. Interaction with animal companions retards the process of devolution and the onset of senility. A study
in England, for example, showed that when budgerigars were given to aged persons, "not only had the bird become an object of empathy and communication in its own right, but it also had become a 'social lubricant'-a focal point
for communication with friends, family, and neighbors nth0 came to visit"
(Mugford & M'Cornisky, 1975, p. 63).
In conclusion, I would like ro urge that psychologists and behavioral scientists pay more attention to the influence that the possession of animal companions has on human personality. Ethological field studies of man and his
animal companions will require new perspectives and new ways of looking at old data. Researchers in this area would do best to forget about theoretical
preconceptions, and diligently examine the fish that their investigative nets bring up.
W e will need to address ourselves to problems such as the following: What is the significance to personality theory of findings about human- animal relationships? What contributions can these findings make to under-
standing human behavior? At what period in the person's life span does the possession of an animal companion have the most influence? Do animal companions play a differential role in the personality development of boys and 1038 B. M. LEVINSON girls? How is sex development affected? At what age? In what kinds of
families? Etc.
Human beings have always recognized their kinship with animals and
given animals an important place in their lives and affections. Only psychology, which purports to be the study of human functioning, has given no recognition to this element. Animals as companions and co-workers have contributed much to the life of man. Let them now contribute as such co the science of man.
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